Anatomy And Physiology Exam 2 Practice Test

Anatomy and Physiology Exam 2 Practice Test: Mastering the Human Body

Preparing for your Anatomy and Physiology Exam 2 can feel overwhelming. This comprehensive practice test covers key concepts from a typical second exam, focusing on systems often introduced in this stage of the course. Remember, this test is for practice and self-assessment; it's crucial to consult your textbook and class notes for thorough preparation. Let's dive into the material!

Section 1: Skeletal System and Bone Tissue

This section focuses on the structure and function of bones, bone tissue, and the skeletal system's role in support, protection, and movement.

1. What type of bone tissue is primarily found in the diaphysis of long bones?

a) Spongy bone b) Compact bone c) Fibrous bone d) Cartilaginous bone

Answer: b) Compact bone The diaphysis, or shaft, of long bones is primarily composed of compact bone, which provides strength and support.

2. Which cells are responsible for bone resorption?

a) Osteoblasts b) Osteocytes c) Osteoclasts d) Chondrocytes

Answer: c) Osteoclasts Osteoclasts are multinucleated cells that break down bone tissue.

3. Describe the process of intramembranous ossification.

Intramembranous ossification is the process of bone formation directly from mesenchymal connective tissue. It's responsible for the formation of flat bones like the skull bones. The process involves the differentiation of mesenchymal cells into osteoblasts, which then secrete osteoid (unmineralized bone matrix). This osteoid subsequently mineralizes, trapping osteoblasts within lacunae, forming osteocytes. The process continues with the formation of trabeculae (spongy bone) and, in some cases, the development of a compact bone layer.

4. Explain the role of calcium and vitamin D in bone health.

Calcium is essential for bone mineralization and strength. Vitamin D plays a vital role in calcium absorption from the gut, ensuring sufficient calcium is available for bone formation and maintenance. A deficiency in either calcium or vitamin D can lead to weakened bones and conditions like osteoporosis.

5. Identify three major types of joints, providing an example of each.

• Fibrous Joints: Immovable joints connected by fibrous connective tissue (e.g., sutures in the skull).
• Cartilaginous Joints: Slightly movable joints connected by cartilage (e.g., intervertebral discs).
• Synovial Joints: Freely movable joints with a synovial cavity containing synovial fluid (e.g., knee joint).

Section 2: Muscular System

This section will quiz your knowledge of muscle tissue types, muscle contractions, and the major muscle groups.

6. What are the three types of muscle tissue, and what are their key characteristics?

• Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary, striated, multinucleated. Responsible for body movement.
• Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, uninucleated. Found in the walls of internal organs.
• Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, striated, branched, uninucleated. Found only in the heart.

7. Describe the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.

The sliding filament theory explains muscle contraction at the molecular level. It involves the interaction of actin and myosin filaments within sarcomeres. During contraction, myosin heads bind to actin, forming cross-bridges. The myosin heads then undergo a power stroke, pulling the actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere, resulting in muscle shortening. This process requires ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

8. What is the role of acetylcholine (ACh) in muscle contraction?

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released at the neuromuscular junction. It binds to receptors on the muscle fiber membrane, causing depolarization and triggering the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The calcium ions initiate the sliding filament mechanism, leading to muscle contraction.

9. Name three muscles involved in respiration.

• Diaphragm: The primary muscle of inspiration.
• External Intercostals: Assist in inspiration by expanding the rib cage.
• Internal Intercostals: Assist in forced expiration by compressing the rib cage.

10. Differentiate between isometric and isotonic muscle contractions.

• Isometric Contraction: Muscle tension increases, but muscle length remains the same (e.g., holding a weight in a static position).
• Isotonic Contraction: Muscle tension remains constant, but muscle length changes (e.g., lifting a weight). This can be further divided into concentric (muscle shortens) and eccentric (muscle lengthens) contractions.

Section 3: Nervous System

This section tests your understanding of the nervous system's structure, function, and key neurotransmitters.

11. What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?

a) Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems b) Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems c) Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems d) Sensory and Motor Nervous Systems

Answer: a) Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems The central nervous system (CNS) comprises the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all nerves outside the CNS.

12. Describe the structure and function of a neuron.

A neuron is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites (receive signals), and an axon (transmits signals). Neurons transmit electrical signals (nerve impulses) through the nervous system.

13. What is the role of myelin sheath in nerve impulse transmission?

The myelin sheath is a fatty insulating layer around some axons. It increases the speed of nerve impulse transmission by allowing saltatory conduction (the impulse "jumps" between Nodes of Ranvier).

14. Name two major neurotransmitters and their primary functions.

• Acetylcholine (ACh): Primarily involved in muscle contraction, but also plays a role in the autonomic nervous system and brain function.
• Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline): A neurotransmitter involved in the sympathetic nervous system, mediating the "fight or flight" response. Also involved in mood regulation and alertness.

15. Explain the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are branches of the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary functions. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration. The parasympathetic nervous system promotes "rest and digest," slowing heart rate, lowering blood pressure, and stimulating digestion.

Section 4: Endocrine System

This section covers the key endocrine glands, hormones, and their roles in maintaining homeostasis.

16. Which gland is considered the "master gland" of the endocrine system?

a) Thyroid gland b) Pituitary gland c) Adrenal gland d) Pancreas

Answer: b) Pituitary gland The pituitary gland produces hormones that regulate other endocrine glands.

17. Name three hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions.

• Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates growth and cell reproduction.
• Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol.

18. What is the function of insulin?

Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas. Its primary function is to lower blood glucose levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells.

19. Describe the role of the thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).

Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) regulate metabolism, growth, and development. They influence numerous bodily functions, including heart rate, body temperature, and energy production.

20. What is the primary function of the adrenal medulla?

The adrenal medulla produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, which mediate the "fight or flight" response. These hormones increase heart rate, blood pressure, and energy mobilization.

Section 5: Cardiovascular System

This section focuses on the heart, blood vessels, and blood circulation.

21. Describe the pathway of blood flow through the heart.

Blood enters the right atrium, then flows to the right ventricle, through the pulmonary valve to the lungs for oxygenation, back to the left atrium, then to the left ventricle, and finally out through the aortic valve to the body.

22. What is the role of the sinoatrial (SA) node?

The SA node is the heart's natural pacemaker. It initiates the electrical impulses that trigger the heart's rhythmic contractions.

23. Differentiate between arteries, veins, and capillaries.

• Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except for the pulmonary artery). They have thick, elastic walls.
• Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except for the pulmonary vein). They have thinner walls and valves to prevent backflow.
• Capillaries: Tiny blood vessels that connect arteries and veins, allowing exchange of nutrients and waste products between blood and tissues.

24. What is blood pressure, and what are the two numbers that represent it?

Blood pressure is the force of blood against the walls of blood vessels. It is represented by two numbers: systolic pressure (the higher number, representing pressure during ventricular contraction) and diastolic pressure (the lower number, representing pressure during ventricular relaxation).

25. Name three components of blood and their functions.

• Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): Carry oxygen throughout the body.
• White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): Part of the immune system, fighting infection.
• Platelets (Thrombocytes): Essential for blood clotting.

This practice test covers only a fraction of the material typically included in an Anatomy and Physiology Exam 2. Remember to review your course materials thoroughly and seek clarification on any concepts you find challenging. Good luck with your exam!